The Evolution Of Microelectronics Information Technology Essay

The Evolution Of Microelectronics Information Technology Essay The mechanical advancement of the previous decade has assumed a significant job in the progression of current society by persistently providing better quality merchandise which are available to the mass markets. Advancement has molded our general public as we probably am aware it which would somehow or another be totally unique in relation to basic shopping to the accomplishments of present day medication, from the massively fruitful media outlet to the profoundly complex instruction framework none of these would have been conceivable without the strong spine of current innovation. What's more, innovation would not exist if small scale hardware was not the exceptionally evolved and explored science it is today. A simple 60 years back, nobody would have had the option to anticipate the effect of developing innovations on overall business and financial aspects few would have understood the idea of the Internet or even the distant chance of remote portable communication. The most recent advancement in innovative exploration is that of nano-hardware. Regardless of whether while composing this, nano-hardware is as yet a to a great extent revealed science, the chances are that over the next years it will can possibly realign society, business and financial aspects. Nano-gadgets at the shopper level will contact all parts of our economy, from wages to business, buying, valuing, capital, trade rates, monetary forms, markets, gracefully and request. Nano-hardware may well drive financial thriving or at any rate be an empowering factor in profitability and worldwide intensity. The Evolution of Micro-gadgets. Figure 1: Evolution of Micro-gadgets The escalated effortâ by experts in the gadgets grounds to build the unwavering quality and performanceâ of items while decreasing their size and cost has prompted the outcomes that scarcely anybody would have anticipated however which we have all generally expected. Truth be told many imagine that hardware made an insurgency in mankind's history and formed our future in a manner it could never have been conceivable. During that time we saw the development of electronic parts which diminished in size while performing progressively complex electronic capacities at ever higher paces. Everything started with the improvement of the transistor. Earlier toâ the creation of the transistor in 1947, its capacity in an electronic circuit could be performed distinctly by a vacuum tube. Vacuum tubes were found to have a few worked in issues. The primary issue with these cylinders was that they created a great deal of warmth, required a warm-up time from 1 to 2 minutes, and required robust force flexibly voltages of 300 volts dc and that's just the beginning. Another issue was that two indistinguishable cylinders had diverse yield and operational qualities in this manner originators were required to deliver circuits that could work with any container of a specific sort. This implied extra segments were regularly required to tune the circuit to the yield attributes required for the cylinder utilized. Figure 2: A run of the mill vacuum-tube body The principal transistors had no striking bit of leeway in size over the littlest cylinders and they were all the more expensive. The biggest bit of leeway the transistor had over the best vacuum tubes was that it devoured substantially less force than a vacuum tube did. Other than they likewise gave more prominent dependability and longer life. Be that as it may, it took a very long time to exhibit different focal points of the transistor over vacuum tubes. The coming of microelectronic circuits has not, generally, changed the idea of the fundamental useful units: microelectronic gadgets were as yet comprised of transistors, resistors, capacitors, and comparable parts. The significant contrast is that every one of these components and their interconnections are presently manufactured on a solitary substrate in a solitary arrangement of activities. A few key improvements were required before the energizing capability of coordinated circuits could be figured it out. The improvement of microelectronics relied upon the creation of strategies for making the different utilitarian units on a precious stone of semiconductor materials. Specifically, a developing number of functionsâ have been offered over to circuit components that perform best: transistors. A few sorts of microelectronic transistors have been created, and for every one of them groups of related circuit components and circuit designs have advanced. The bipolar transistor was developed in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain and William Shockley of the Bell Telephone Laboratories. In bipolar transistors charge bearers of the two polarities are engaged with their activity. They are otherwise called intersection transistors. The NPN and PNP transistors make up the class of gadgets called intersection transistors. A second sort of transistor was really considered very nearly 25 years before the bipolar gadgets, however its manufacture in amount didn't get reasonable until the mid 1960s. This is the field-impact transistor. The one that is basic in microelectronics is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-impact transistor. The term alludes to the three materials utilized in its development and is condensed MOSFET. The two essential kinds of transistor, bipolar and MOSFET, partition microelectronic circuits into two huge families. Today the best thickness of circuit components per-chip can be accomplished with the fresher MOSFET innovation. Today, an individual incorporated circuit on a chip would now be able to grasp more electronic components than most complex bits of electronic gear that could be worked in 1950. In the initial a long time since the commencement of incorporated circuits, the quantity of transistors that could be set on a solitary chip has multiplied each year. The 1980 cutting edge circuit is about 70K thickness per chip. The main ages of the financially created microelectronic gadgets are currently alluded to as little scope incorporated circuits (SSI). They incorporated a couple of doors. The hardware characterizing a rationale cluster must be given by outside conductors. Gadgets with more than around 10 entryways on a chip however less than around 200 are medium-scale incorporated circuits (MSI). The upper limit of medium-scale coordinated circuits innovation is markedâ by chips that contain a total number-crunching and rationale unit (ALU). This unit acknowledges two operands as sources of info and can play out any of twelve or so procedure on them. The activities incorporate expansion, deduction, correlation, sensible and or potentially and moving the slightest bit to one side or right. An enormous scope incorporated circuit (LSI) contains a huge number of components, yet every component is little to the point that the total circuit is normally not exactly a fourth of an inch on a side. Incorporated circuits are developing from huge scope to huge scope (VLSI) and wafer-scale mix (WSI). Since the transistor was concocted more than 50 years back, the pattern in hardware has been to make littler and littler items utilizing less chips of more prominent intricacy and littler element sizes. The improvement of coordinated circuits and capacity gadgets has kept on advancing at an exponential rate; at present it takes a few years for each progressive dividing of segment size. Nanoelectronics allude to the utilization of nanotechnology on electronic segments, particularly transistors. Despite the fact that the term nanotechnology is commonly characterized as using innovation under 100â nm in size, nanoelectronics frequently allude to transistor gadgets that are little to the point that communications and quantum mechanical properties should be concentrated widely. Subsequently, present transistors fall under this classification, despite the fact that these gadgets are produced under 65â nm or 45â nm innovation. Nanoelectronics are here and there considered as troublesome innovation since present competitors are fundamentally not the same as conventional transistors. A portion of these competitors include: cross breed sub-atomic/semiconductor gadgets, one dimensional nanotubes/nanowires, or progressed sub-atomic hardware. Albeit these hold guarantee for the future, they are still being worked on and will in all probability not be utilized for assembling at any point in the near future. Prudent and Social Impact of Micro-Electronics and Nano-Electronics. Fears of huge joblessness have welcomed mechanical changes since the time the Industrial Revolution. A long way from pulverizing occupations, in any case, fast mechanical development by and large has made numerous new significant chances. In the 25 years, the mechanical financial aspects were overflowed with new advances while simultaneously the measure of jobless individuals has definitely been brought down. Recently with the assistance of new discoveries in the region of microelectronics and nanoelectronics they will fundamentally affect both the numbers and kinds of occupations in the modern universes in the next years. The microelectronic upset previously influenced work in ventures going from steelworks to some other organization and will keep on influencing each part of work. Albeit microelectronic and nanoelectronic controls won't move through the modern world short-term, most specialists anticipate that them should be immovably settled underway procedures. Set against these worries, in any case, nanoelectronic advancements will expand efficiency over a wide scope of mechanical undertakings. In principle this should prompt improved financial development, which thusly will convert into new jobs. Put roughly, the additional creation made conceivable by innovative changes harmonized with rising riches and expanded interest for made merchandise and ventures, a mix that prompts high paces of financial development and close full work. As is notable, mix of innovative changes and financial weights prompted a sharp decrease on the planets horticultural work power over the past 50 years. In each major modern nation the farming work power presently speaks to under 30 percent of the working populace. While the quantity of agrarian specialists has diminished, in any case, outpu

Learning Principles in Video Games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learning Principles in Video Games - Essay Example Directly the â€Å"Play-station† has altered gaming as it is fun, in vogue, on occasion fierce and at most occasions wise and ignites interest. It claims to all age bunches since it incorporates sped, exactness with a filmic creation esteems and foundation. Game Chosen †â€Å"Democracy†: Majority rules system is a profoundly instructive game. It included as the best Sim Game of the Year in 2005. It is identified with legislative issues where the player ends up as the President or the Prime Minister of a nation. â€Å"Democracy†, lets you discover how you would toll as a pioneer of a created nation, for example, The United States of America, France, Germany or Canada. The game permits you to assume responsibility and deal with your country’s accounts, arrangements, inner undertakings and security. Standards of Democracy: The most significant standard of any computer game is its multi media type of diversion including an interesting union of 3D craftsmanship, CG impacts, design, sensational execution, music, audio cues, narrating, man-made brainpower and above all between movement. The essential standards of this specific game, is to instruct an individual on the most proficient method to adapt to a circumstance utilizing great administration strategies. The player is regularly positioned in a difficulty or an emergency where he needs to utilize his ability and insight to receive in return. The most troublesome viewpoint looked by the player is in finding the right harmony between funds, tax assessment and enactment to guarantee the nation doesn’t go into liquidation.

5 Uncommon Grammar Mistakes You Might Not Know Youre Making

5 Uncommon Grammar Mistakes You Might Not Know Youre Making Most writers know how to avoid the most common grammar mistakesâ€"use your word processors spelling and grammar checker and review your text carefully, but how can you avoid less common grammar mistakes you might not even know youre making?Many an editing project comes across my desk that includes a number of grammar mistakes. While Microsoft Word and other word processing programs often catch the most common mistakesâ€"a misused comma or a split infinitive â€"the system simply can not do what a trained eye can; understand the authors intention and then appropriately convey this message in his/her text.A well-trained writer or editor can often catch these mistakes quickly and easily, but, as the author, you are the only one who truly knows what you are trying to say.Speaking of thisâ€"as the author of your written materials, its important that you clearly define your message, but then check your work to ensure each sentence conveys this message appropriately. You are really your best first defense against the common and even not-so-common grammar mistakes that plague your text.First, if you havent already done so, re-read your text. Read it aloud if you must. Does it make sense? Find areas where your grammar doesnt sound right and attack these areas first. Dont accept all grammar revisions from your word processor; the best writers know that these programs are extremely limited and often confuse your meaning when used indiscriminately.When you find text that isnt clear, or at least, doesnt sound right, start evaluating it with a critical eye. Are you making any common grammar blunders? Often a simple rewording will correct these mistakes.Beyond that, knowledge is power. Here are a few of my personal favorite uncommon grammar mistakes that you may already be making (and how to avoid them!):Alright is not all rightThis is the number one uncommon grammar mistake to avoid because it came as a total shock to me.Its never all right to use the word alright! It turns o ut that the word alright is a misspelling. Though its usage is becoming more popular in both British and American grammar, for now, using the word alright wont make your work all right.Run-on sentencesRun-on sentences are easy to spot when re-reading your text, especially if you are reading it aloud. If you must take a breath while reading the sentence aloud, stop a minute and check to ensure that you havent written a run-on.When you spot one, try cutting the sentence into two separate sentences and see if the intended meaning is still conveyed. One easy way to spot a run-on is use of the word however in the middle of a sentence. Chances are, that sentence can easily be divided into two, more clear sentences.Misuse of apostrophesBy far, this is the most common uncommon grammar mistake I see in my editing works and it is so easily avoided. Remember, you only use an apostrophe for contractions (isnt for is not) or to show possession (FinMarketings post).Here are some examples I almost always see:Wrong: He was president during the 1960s.Right: He was president during the 1960s.Wrong: I recently read a great post of FinMarketings.Right 1: I recently read a great post by FinMarketing.Right 2: I recently read FinMarketings great post.Not sure whether the word requires an apostrophe? Leave it out. Chances are, an apostrophe doesnt belong in your sentence.Misuse of i.e. and e.g.With antiquated Latin origin, its easy to see why there is so much confusion surrounding these simple little abbreviations.i.e. comes from the Latin phrase id est, which means that is. Therefore, its abbreviation, i.e., literally means in other words. By contrast, e.g. comes from the Latin phrase, exempli gratia, which means for example. Therefore, e.g. is used before providing specific examples that support your assertion.If your sentence requires one of these abbreviationsâ€"but youre not sure which oneâ€"substitute the following for i.e. or e.g. in your text:in other wordsDo the words that f ollow provide a definition or synonym for the prior text? If so, use i.e.for exampleDo the words that follow clarify your previous text by way of example? If so, use e.g.Passive VoiceUsing passive voice will not kill your work and it isnt always inappropriate, but using active voice just helps to clarify your intended meaning. This is especially important for marketing materials, press releases and other text that requires concise communication and action.What is passive voice? Passive voice is best explained by example:Passive: The shoes were purchased by the lady in red.Active: The lady in red purchased the shoes.Choosing active voice makes your text more reader-friendly and more often than not, clarifies your intended meaning because it requires a direct statement and is less difficult to follow than passive voice.

Things Fall Apart, Achebes Odyssey - 964 Words

In Chinua Achebes novel, Things Fall Apart, the impact of British Colonialism in Africa is critiqued through the story of an Igbo man, Okonkwo. Okonkwo is an extremely masculine man who has but one fear, the fear of being weak. Throughout the novel, his actions are motivated by this fear which defines him characteristically as on overly masculine man. This over masculinity is Okonkwos flaw and it drives his moods and actions, ultimately leading to his demise. In this respect, Okonkwo plays the role of a tragic hero driven by his flaw which leads to his downfall. Okonkwo, like the tragic heros of Greek myth, was driven by a personal flaw which motivated his life decisions. He always had to be superior to others because his life was†¦show more content†¦He had let his anger overtake him and would have to pay dearly. When the District Commissioner went to Okonkwos home to arrest him, he found a number of Igbo men in Okonkwos hut who led the British man to Okonkwos body hanging from a tree. Okonkwo had taken his own life because he had failed himself. His own flaw had led him to murder a British messenger which was punishable by death. Instead of waiting for the District Commissioner to take him away, he committed the most terrible Igbo act and took his own life. As stated by one of the Igbo men from Okonkwos hut, It is an abomination for a man to take his own life (p. 207). Okonkwo had come to this perilous situation by his own fault. His tragic flaw had led him to this lose-lose situation, and in the end, he ironically chooses the cowardly path. For a man who had defined his person by his masculine actions and his drive to succeed, he had arrived at a situation where there was no way out. Though there is irony in the way that Okonkwo commits suicide, he chose the way in which he would leave the world and did not allow the British Colonizers to end his life. He was a proud individual and would not let such a thing happen. In this action, there is respect for him, yet one must look at how he arrived at this situation. It was through his own faults that his life was doomed. And this fault lies in his ever present desire to be a successful, dominant, masculine man in his

Why People Arent Discussing Describe Yourself Essay Sample

Why People Aren't Discussing Describe Yourself Essay Sample The Downside Risk of Describe Yourself Essay Sample Professor Mitchell obtained a grant to have a category of students to Belgium to be able to study the EU. Also incorporate any research that you conducted and the way that it enhanced your abilities and abilities. It's extremely important to read carefully essay services reviews, because you wish to steer clear of low high quality services. The principal question of all students who must compose a reflective or private essay is whether it's possible to produce such sort of academic paper without sounding too egotistical. In addition, you can incorporate the organizations which you're a member to, your occupations and other projects which you find important to the readers. You are able to also be more specific on how you want to describe your subject. Some institutions will provide you with details about how to compose your essay. Writing for school takes a methodology for efficient and efficient writing. Men and women have a tendency to pick a range of themes of who they are and attempt to describe all of them. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about a coming deadline. They are asked to explain, comment on, or assess a topic of study in the form of an essay. You are able to also tell readers about your present situation in life. Your conclusion should be well written because it's the final matter to be read by your reader and will remain on their mind the longest after they've read the rest of your essay. Tell us a topic you have changed your head on in the last three years. On the flip side, in case you made a fantastic choice, focus on what influenced you to make that decision and the way it has changed you. By this time, you probably get the notion that the style choice for your descriptive essay is really open. The statement functions as the opening sentence and sets out the manner information relays in the remainder of the essay. Regardless of what's the goal of your essay, there's a preset number of points which you will be expected to handle. What You Should Do to Find Out About Describe Yourself Essay Sample Before You're Left Behind It is possible to also acquire many discounts on our site which will help you to save some more money for future orders or anything you want to spend them on. Numerous alternative logical structures for essays are visualized as diagrams, making them simple to implement or adapt in the building of an argument. The structure of private statement is easier. Ensure you give clear explanations of the things on your list too. Before writing a descriptive essay, you should have the ability to understand how you will encrypt your essay to meet with the question requirements. No matter what you plan to include in the debut, think about it as an introduction to a comprehensive stranger. The title for your essay is determined by the topic is provided. Deciding on a great topic for your essay is vital. Remember you're on a quest about how to write essay describing yourself, you would like to leave a positive impression. As you begin writing more descriptive essays, ensure you paint a photo of your character. While at it, you also need to think of the words you will utilize to describe yourself. Contrary to other objective essays it not only provides the huge picture but in addition provides the inside specifics of the situation. As a writer, you ought to go through various samples so that you're able to get exposed. There are several descriptive essay topics that you might be examined on as a writer. If you wish to begin writing a descriptive essay, think about the focus of your writing first. Before you commence writing a descriptive essay about an individual or before you choose to cover essays writing, it is vital to read several templates of well-structured papers.

How Is Romeo Presented in the First Two Acts of Romeo and Juliet Free Essays

In the first two acts of Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is presented as a young, love struck man. He is a dreamer and a fantasist. The audience feels sympathetic towards him because love is taking him nowhere. We will write a custom essay sample on How Is Romeo Presented in the First Two Acts of Romeo and Juliet or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Act 1, we first meet Romeo as he is sobbing about his love for a young lady, who we later find out to be Rosaline. The first line he speaks, â€Å"Is the day so young?†, suggests that he is bored and waiting for something to happen as he is so shocked about how early it is in the day. To emphasise this, he goes on to say, â€Å"Ay me, sad hours seem so long†. Benvolio asks Romeo why he is sad and he explains that he is sad because he has no love and his line, â€Å"Out of here favour where I am in loves† shows that the person he loves does not love him. This is how the audience first learns of Romeo’s love struck ness. To show even more how love struck and sad Romeo is, he admits it to himself when he says, â€Å"This is not Romeo, he is some other where.† Benvolio asks him to â€Å"examine other beauties† to cure his love sickness. But Romeo says that if his eyes see anything more beautiful than Rosaline, then â€Å"turn tears to fires†. This shows that Romeo is very single-minded on Rosaline and believes that no one could be more beautiful than her. On the way to the Capulet’s party, Romeo is presented as upset and a spoil sport. He explains that he has a â€Å"soul of lead† which â€Å"stakes [him] to the ground [he] cannot move†. This shows that he is very serious about his love for Rosaline and feels his sadness as a heavy weight on him, not allowing him to have fun, but to grieve. Reluctantly, Romeo agrees to go to the party in the hope that he will find Rosaline. At the Capulet’s party, Romeo finds another girl, Juliet, and is entranced by her beauty. He asks himself, â€Å"Did my heart love till now?†. This line suggests that he completely falls in love with Juliet and asks himself whether he did love Rosaline or whether he had just got it into his head. This shows that Romeo was very single-minded and a sudden link is made between him and Juliet. However, as Romeo is so absorbed by Juliet he looses his disguise. When Tybalt, a keen Capulet, finds out about this and becomes very angry, describing Romeo as a â€Å"villain Montague† because he has gate crashed the Capulet’s party. This shows that Tybalt is an enthusiastic Capulet and believes Romeo is of the opposite being. But Capulet himself is in a very jolly mood and he describes Romeo as a â€Å"portly gentlemen† and a â€Å"well-governed youth†, showing that Capulet’s beliefs of Romeo is that he is a dignified and well behaved young man. Romeo is also described as a handsome and gentle young man. This is shown in Act 2, as the Nurse described Romeo as â€Å"his face be better than any man’s† and â€Å"gentle as a lamb†. This shows that there are different views of Romeo from different characters but, in general, Romeo is presented as a young, handsome and brave young man who is a distant part of his feud-orientated family. As soon as Romeo falls in love with Juliet a sudden link is made between them. The way they speak is very poetic and in verse, as if they know exactly what to say next. Also, Romeo is presented as religious when he compares his lips to â€Å"two blushing pilgrims†. Romeo is presented as a quite sensible young man and, unlike Benvolio and Mercutio, he doesn’t joke about and mess around. He also doesn’t seem to be part of the dispute between the Capulet’s and Montague’s, showing how keen his is on love. On the other hand, as soon as Romeo and Juliet fall in love they become trapped in their own world and don’t mention much about their families being enemies. Romeo sometimes risks his life and many consequences in order to see Juliet, showing how much he truly loves her. Romeo is also presented as a risky and completely taken in man. At the end of Act 2, Romeo agrees to marry Juliet, but neither the Capulet’s nor Montague’s no about it. This is very risky for Romeo and Juliet and Romeo seems to dismiss the consequences because he is so taken in by Juliet. To make things even more secretive, Romeo arranges for a rope ladder to be sent to the excited Nurse, so that Romeo can climb into Juliet’s room to get married. In conclusion, Acts 1 and 2 of Romeo and Juliet presents Romeo as, at first, a fantasists and love struck man. By the end of Act 2, he is seen as a very entranced and risky man, showing his devotion of love towards Juliet. How to cite How Is Romeo Presented in the First Two Acts of Romeo and Juliet, Essay examples

Reading for Understanding free essay sample

In the story Bones by J. Lee Engfer, we meet a young, 27 year old, self diagnosed hypochondriac named Lea who acts as if she doesnt appreciate life. Lea in the beginning of the story is a pessimist but towards the end we see a change in her ideas and thinking until she becomes optimistic about her life. We also meet a young spirited older woman named Thea who is vivacious and fun loving with a sense of style which makes her almost 1940s Hollywood-esque, with the neck scarves and painted on eyebrows. The story is a small look into Leas life. We learn key points about her such as her mother passing away, and her self-diagnosed hypochondria. Its Halloween and Lea and her friend Thea go for a walk to Lake Harriet near Theas house. Lea has an epiphany about her life. The theme of the story is about living your life to the fullest. We will write a custom essay sample on Reading for Understanding or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The idea that Lea is a hypochondriac could have an even deeper meaning, such as Lea representing the oppression of society in today which is seen almost everywhere with people who do not make an effort to make their lives worthwhile. Leas turning point happens as her and Thea play in one of several piles of leaves. Perhaps the leaves have a more significant meaning than just leaves? Maybe the dead leaves represent Leas dead personality and dull, meaningless life. I believe so. I believe the leaves being played in and stirred about represent a deeper meaning of change and finding meaning in life. A simple action of playing in leaves brought on an epiphany that Lea should start living her life. As they walk back home Lea has to slow down to Theas pace, which makes her realize that despite Theas age, she is able to fulfill her life with the satisfaction of knowing that if she died today, she would have died alive. This short story can relate to many things, as it is an issue seen in society very often. Religion can be an example of how it restricts your life from doing certain things, and living in fear of death, when there is nothing to be afraid of. I can also relate this short story to a series of books that I have read written by James Frey. A Million Little Pieces and My Friend Leonard both follow the story of a recovering drug abuser, author James Frey. James addiction led him to believe that his life was worthless, that he was worthless, and he would do anything to end it all, rehab gave him the chance o end those feelings and change his views. His views change when he finds out devastating news that his girlfriend has committed suicide, his outlook and perspective on life completely changes as soon as hes out of rehab. He becomes optimistic about life, but certain aspects remain pessimistic. A popular piece of writing turned music video written by Mary Schmich called Advice, like youth , probably just wasted on the young and it was published in the Chicago Tribune as a column in 1997. The most popular and well-known form of the essay is the successful music single called Everybodys Free to Wear Sunscreen released in 1999, accredited to Baz Luhrmann (which I highly recommend by the way! ). Accept certain inalienable truths, prices will rise, politicians will philander, you too will get old, and when you do youll fantasize that when you were young prices were reasonable, politicians were noble and children respected their elders the perfect quote for Leas life. The text gives advice on how to create a worry free life; it is a beautiful piece of writing. I absolutely love how this author uses Irony and Flashbacks. Irony was used when Lea said It doesnt affect my functioning in society while referring to her hypochondria. This statement is false because she underestimates herself, when she can achieve so much more than a stable job, and a feeling of just being ok. The way she describes her scattering her mothers ashes is a beautiful example of a flashback, it is extremely descriptive. There are however many other techniques used such as personification, metaphors, local color, and symbolism. They all tie together in a beautiful way which makes the reader feel what the character is feeling, and see what the character is seeing. It grasps the characters emotions and makes the reader understand them. Living your life as if you were scared of death at every corner is a pointless way of living. People should realize that they need to experience many different things in life to fulfill that void that many people feel when asking themselves what is the meaning of life. In my opinion the meaning of life is to live your life without justification form others on why you do something. The point of life is to live, how can you live with a constant fear of death? This short story is an excellent example of a self realization that there is more to life than worrying about every single bad thing that happens. Live as you will have wished to have lived when

Domestic violence and ethnic minority Women living in the UK with “no recourse to public funds” The WritePass Journal

Domestic violence and ethnic minority Women living in the UK with â€Å"no recourse to public funds† CHAPTER 1 Domestic violence and ethnic minority Women living in the UK with â€Å"no recourse to public funds† CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH THE STUDYAIMOBJECTIVESCHAPTER 2METHODOLOGY AND THEORATICAL APPROACHSOURCES OF INFORMATION KEY WORDSCHAPTER 3LITERATURE REVIEWLITERATURE ON ISSUES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCECHAPTER 4HEALTH AND WELL- BEINGMENTAL HEALTHCHAPTER 5CULTURAL INFLUENCESCHAPTER 6REFUGES, CARE AND SUPPORTSUPPORTING WOMEN WITH ‘NO RECOURSE’ TO PUBLIC FUNDSBLACK ETHNIC MINORITY WOMEN AND LAWCHAPTER 7CONLUSION/CRITIQUECHAPTER 8IMPLICATIONS TO SOCIAL WELFARE PRACTICERECOMMENDATIONSRelated CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH THE STUDY The focus of this study is to discuss the impact of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women living in the UK. To discuss intervention support services available and limitations faced in accessing statutory and voluntary organisations services. The topic has been chosen following a successful volunteering placement within an area of domestic violence. Volunteering at Coventry Haven as a domestic violence advocate/support worker meant being confronted daily by black ethnic minority Women living in the UK with â€Å"no recourse to public funds† needing support.   The â€Å"no recourse to public funds† rule means that women with unsettled status cannot access public provision including refuges, and social welfare (Sen. 2007:13) The organisation delivers services from a feminist perspective, taking a critical position of women in question and argues that issues of masculinity power are the ultimate root of intimate violence (Dobash and Dobash 1979). This feminist theoretical framework also argues that violence must be located within gendered perspective of men’s and women’s lives (Letherby 2003:42). The literature based study will adopt a feminist perspective and framework which understands domestic violence as a gendered occurrence to provide an analysis of current and relevant literature on the issues of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women in the UK. This study will also discuss effects of domestic violence on health and well-being of the black ethnic minority women in UK.   Moreover, it will explore the support services available to victims and discuss the limitations faced in accessing state services. Research will discuss the implication of findings for practice and will suggest a number of various recommendations towards current support services. From my own personal perceptions as a woman brought up in Africa, now living in the UK.   Many women continue to occupy a less important position in family organisations with many African men still possibly viewing domestic violence as the only way to solve family disputes.  Ã‚   Women’s Aid (2007) argue that although there is no legal definition of domestic violence, recommendation from the Home Office states that: â€Å"Domestic violence includes any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (physically, psychological, sexual, financial or emotional between adults who are or have been intimate partners or family members in spite of of gender or sexuality† (Women’s Aid, 2007). Until most recently, the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim was defined as that of partners, ex-partners or intimate family members, but following critiques by black ethnic minority women organisation like the Women’s Aid, Southhall Black Sisters, the definition now includes all forms of abuse including cultural specific forms of violence like forced marriage, honour killing and dowry attacks (Women’s Aid, 2007). AIM To discuss the impact of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women in UK and explore the intervention support services existing, the limitations these women face in accessing state services. OBJECTIVES To provide an analysis of current/ relevant literature on issues of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women in UK. To discuss the effects of domestic violence on the health and well-being of black ethnic minority women in UK. To explore the impact of cultural influences when accessing domestic violence support services. To explore the domestic violence support services available from statutory, voluntary organisations and their limitation in accessing these services. To discuss the implication of the findings for practice and suggest some various recommendations towards current support services. CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY AND THEORATICAL APPROACH This chapter will discuss the methodology and theoretical framework which the researcher has adopted for the rationale of the study and will provide the aims and objectives for the research.   The feminist theory of domestic violence will be briefly discussed within the research to gain an idea as to why men (perpetrators) abuse their female partners. The research is a literature based project adopting the feminist perspective methodology which argues that issues of gender and power are the ultimate root of intimate violence (Dobash and Dobash 1979).   The feminist theoretical framework argues that violence must be situated within the gendered context of men’s and women’s lives (Letherby   2003). Understanding domestic violence as a gendered occurrence leads to a focus on the problems of violent behaviour.   As (Cheyne; O’Brian; and Belgrave, 2000) argue, â€Å"The main purpose of feminist theory in every discipline has been to introduce the issues of gender†.   With regards to domestic violence Kersti Yllo (1993) comments that, the most primary feminists insight, is that, domestic violence cannot be sufficiently understood unless gender and power are taken into account. A critical theory of the feminist hypothesis will be adopted because of its distinctive features that focus on oppression and commitment in order to use the research procedures and outcomes for   empowering   the oppressed;   in this case the black ethnic minority women living in UK either on spousal visa, students or unknown status.   However, the black ethnic minority women would appear to be marginalised under this classification. From my own personal perspective as a black woman living in the UK, many black women continue to occupy a subordinate position, with many black men possibly viewing violence as the only way to solve family problems.  Ã‚   Through-out the process of the study, the researcher will remain in a distance objective stand to remain free from biases that could hinder obtaining knowledge.   Objectivity in social research is, the principle drawn from positivism that strives to ensure that the researcher remains objective and distanced from the study. In this way, findings depend on the nature of what was studied somewhat than the personal beliefs and values or the researcher (Rubin and Babbie 2001). The study will draw together and re-analyse qualitative literature to discuss the impact of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women living in the UK on, either, spousal visas, student visas or under an unknown status. Research will explore the impact of cultural influences on manly and woman relationships within the black ethnic minority families, impact of domestic violence on the women’s health and well-being. Furthermore the study will look at limitations black ethnic minority women come across when assessing statutory and voluntary organisations services for domestic violence support/services. A literature search is defined as methodical and thorough search of all types of published literature in order to identify as many items as possible that are related to a particular topic (Gash 2000:1)  Ã‚   As Creswell (2003) points out, the literature review shares with the readers the results of previous studies and also benchmarks results of a study with other results.   Primarily literature reviews are based on a synthesis of primary findings done by other researchers.   It also helps in generating a picture of what is known or not known about a particular happening (Creswell, 2003; Groove, 1993). Another reason for doing a literature based study is the time factor considering the process needed to undertake primary data collection.   The use of literature review can be viewed as less expensive compared to primary data collection in financial terms. The researcher also agrees with Stewart (1993) who argues that in case of tough budget and time constraints the use of secondary data is also good enough and can make available quality data. Like any other method of secondary research, literature review has its strengths and weakness.   The strengths for literature based study is that the researcher rarely affects the subject being studied because books have already been written, case records already recorded therefore, analysing the literature can have no effect on them.   Literature based research also permits the researcher to study processes that occur over long periods of time.   Literature based studies also have some limitations depending on the data that already exists. Each time the researcher bases a research on an analysis of data that already exist, is clearly limited to what exists. Due to sensitivity of issues of domestic violence primary research methods of collecting data might not have been the most appropriate for this research.   It is very difficult to gain access to women in refuge in practical terms because refuge locations are kept secret for the safety of the victims.   Victims may not wish to discuss their past experiences fearing to trigger some emotions.   Some women in refuge have been hostile in the past towards academic researchers using residents (Hoff: 1999.) The literature search focuses on sources that would meet the identified aims and objectives.   Exploration terms were predefined to retain focus on domestic violence and abuse on black ethnic minority women. Intended for the purpose of this research the term â€Å"Black† is used exclusively for women born in Africa, living in UK on either, a spousal visa, student visa or unknown status. One of the limitations will be in recognising unrecorded cases of domestic violence.   Fearing stigmatisation and shame by many black women, many incidents of domestic violence go unreported within the black communities therefore; literature review may not be a true account of all the black women surviving domestic violence and abuse. SOURCES OF INFORMATION French et al (2001) suggest that literature review goes through three fundamental steps.   This includes the search for relevant literature, analysis and critical evaluation of individual sources of literature and finally synthesis which involves comparing, contrasting, organising and finally presenting the written review. (French et al 2001) For the purpose of this study, literature information will be sourced from either, books or journals, grey (unpublished) literature, official publications including charitable organisations. Most sources will be obtained from the library catalogue systems and electronic database using some key words. KEY WORDS Domestic violence, black ethnic minority women, abuse, perpetrators, spouse and battered women Since initial literature search does always yield many articles, practical screening criteria will be used to screen literature in order to get articles that are relevant to the subject only.   The practical screening criteria will include factors such as the language in which the articles are printed. To arrive at relevant literature, database for Coventry University, Social Welfare and Community Studies was used. To search for literature the Coventry university catalogue searches of electronic database using tools like, Cinahl, Assia. Medical Science Academic Search, Ebsco, Science direct and the internet has been used. The literature search used a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria, ensuring that time was not consumed on literature that was immaterial to the study. INCLUSION EXCLUSION Black ethnic minority women in heterosexual relationships only. Black ethnic minority women who were born in UK and anyone holding a UK citizenship. Black ethnic minority women living in UK only. The reason is mainly to focus and target this group of women living in UK on spousal visa, student visa and unknown status only. Any articles in foreign languages will be excluded. The rationale for the exclusion of  Ã‚   articles in foreign language is that, it would be costly in terms of finance having to pay translators. Literature review that is more than fifteen years will be included in the research for historical background purposes. CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW LITERATURE ON ISSUES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE This chapter will discuss the literature review on issues of domestic violence, focusing primarily on black ethnic minority women living in the UK.   To be able to understand the issues of domestic violence, it is vital to recognise that violence against women is an international reality which has been acknowledged as a major public health issue (Shipway 2004).   The acknowledgement of domestic violence internationally as a major public health has seen an improvement in numbers of localities dealing with domestic violence, but there remain some areas where little if anything is done to support women abused by intimate partners (Shipway 2004). Problems have risen where women from the ethnic minority have been lumped into one category and not considering their different cultural and religious differences. With no intensions of making excuses, it has been noted that obtaining data on black ethnic minority women (BEM) housing needs is difficult.   (Netto et al., 2001) report that there was national evidence that people from the black ethnic minority with including refugees find it very difficult to access services. Whilst domestic violence affects women from all ethnic groups, women from black ethnic minority communities may face isolation more that women from the majority. There are claims that women from the black ethnic minority communities may have to overcome religious and cultural pressure resulting in them being afraid of bringing shame onto their family respect or in some cases normalising and accepting domestic violence (Women’s Aid 2010). According to (Binney et al, and Women’s Aid Federation, 1988), the average length of time a woman endures violence before leaving an abusive relationship is seven years.   Also research has shown that a woman is beaten and average of 35 times before she seeks helps. Amina Mama (1989) highlighted that the additional implications of race, ethnicity in conditioning the experience of domestic violence. In addition Amina Mama (1989) argues that fear of racism responses could act as barriers preventing black ethnic minority women from accessing services or speak out about the domestic violence they experience. (Chantler et al (2006) mentioned that stereotyping and stigmatisation as barriers that prevent women from the black ethnic minority communities from seeking help.   The position of black ethnic minority women escaping domestic violence is exacerbated by barriers to reporting abuse which also include protecting family honour and normalising and accepting violence. Netto et al (2001) indicated the lack of specialist refuge spaces and immigration legislation as a barrier that denies black ethnic minority women with insecure status to access domestic violence services. Immigration issues posed a significant barrier for eight of twenty three survivors (Home Office 2008).   As indicated by the Home Office, a woman who has entered Britain as a spouse of a British citizen does not have recourse to any public funds should the marriage breaks up within one year. Exclusion in this way will stem, in part, from the fact that these women are categorises due to their unsettled immigration status which as a result becomes a barrier to accessing statutory services. Whilst women from the black ethnic communities are faced with the same obstacles in leaving violent relationships as white majority (Burman and Chantler   2009), confirms that; money, childcare, housing, transport may carry cultural specific inflections, exacerbated by racism and class position. According to (Burman and Chantler, 2009), such representations, in most cases have material consequences in terms of policy and development (Burman and Chantler, 2009). (Gilroy and Woods, 1994:101) states that black ethnic minority women face structured and subjective racism and sexism which determine their access to, as well as their choices in the basic right of adequate roof over their heads. Roehampton University (2008) revealed   that   the housing needs of the black ethnic minority were overwhelming and a   number of respondents admitted to   the need for improved consultation with black ethnic minority’s sector (Banga and Gill, 2008:2).   One woman stated that black women lack a voice, their needs are not accounted for and that it has not been about services to suit women and children’s needs but about women and children having to fit into services (Banga and Gill, 2008: 2). The NSPCC domestic violence campaign briefing (2008) indicates, two thirds of local authorities in England, Scotland and Wales offers a specialised service to women who are victims of domestic violence; one in ten (46 out of 434 has a specialised black ethnic minority services for abused women.   These are mainly in England (95 per cent) and almost half are in London.   Such statistics indicate a gap in knowledge about the extent and geographical coverage for black ethnic minority and how domestic violence affects such communities. On the other hand the success and accomplishment by the Southall black sisters (2008) confirms how the system can be achieved to challenge insufficiencies in local government response after winning a court case against Ealing Council (Southall Black Sisters, 2008). The council was found guilty of failing to pay proper regard to equalities legislation, in particular the Race Relations Act when making its decisions to cut the entire funding of Southhall Black Sisters (SBS) who provided services for black women (Southall Black Sisters, 2008). Rai and Thiara (1997) identified several obstacles to accessing the emotional, informational and instrumental support for women from specialist services.   According to critics of â€Å"on-size-fits-all† approach, women have negative views of current policies of domestic violence especially those of local authority (Southhall Black Sisters, 2008).   This â€Å"one-size-fits-all† highlights an institutional culture that fails to recognise the need for domestic violence action and policy. The end the violence against woman campaign (2007) reports   that the   government   departments failed to put in place a framework that ensures that domestic violence was addressed effectively.   In addition Mason (1992) estimated that between 25 percent and 50 percent of homeless families headed by a woman had become homeless as a result of fleeing domestic violence. Vincent and Jouriles (1988).   Bearing in mind such a high estimation by Mason (1992), it is important to note that in some cases battered women are confronted with homelessness and harsh economic hardships when they separate from violent partners. (Williams and Becker 1994), concluded that, of the one hundred and forty two programs surveyed, less than have made special effort to accommodate the needs of black ethnic minority populations, for example providing outreach services, adding or tailoring intervention to encourage involvement by women from the ethnic marginal groups (Williams and Becker 1994). In addition, statistics issued by Women’s Aid Federation of England made known that one in four women do experience violence in the home at least once during their life time (Women’s Aid Federation of England, 2002).   Also according to the Home office, â€Å"two women weekly are killed by intimate partners† (Home Office 2002). Numerous researchers and practitioners in the past studies on domestic violence within black ethnic minority communities have preferred to lump all women from the black ethnic minority in one group. (Fonte, 1988) points out that in much of previous researches; little attention has been paid to similarities and differences among different groups within the broad race/ethnic category (Fonte, 1998).   For purposes of racial/ethnic comparisons, diverse ethnic groups have often been shrunken into heterogeneous categories for example â€Å"black† though ignoring the diversity within that larger group. The process whereby individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds are sorted into broad race/ethnic categories by researchers is â€Å"ethnic lumping† (Fonte, 1993).   In most cases when research is circumscribed ethnic group the findings are sometimes over generalised to all members of the larger group.  Ã‚   Issues of within-group diversity have been rarely been addressed. Moreover, experiences and values within these groups have been influenced not just by immigration histories, cultural heritages but also by historical facts.   Researchers need to be aware and knowledgeable of how ethnicity, national origin, religion, disability, language and socioeconomic status are crucial when collecting domestic violence data from women within diverse groups if their diverse needs are to be met effectively. A more careful assessment of the potential role of race/ethnicity in domestic violence, rather than ethnic lumping and overgeneralization is essential if adequate interventions are to be developed and utilised at the same time removing the barriers faced by women from the black ethnic communities in accessing statutory and voluntary organisations.  Ã‚      CHAPTER 4 HEALTH AND WELL- BEING This chapter will focus on the impact of domestic violence on the health and well- being on the lives of black ethnic minority women living in the UK as they face the barriers to accessing some statutory services.   In seeking to understand the ways in which domestic violence and abuse undermines any woman’s life, health and well-being and the determination to survive it can be helpful for researchers to consider â€Å"Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (1987). Figure 1.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (1987). In 1987 Maslow argued that the social and economic disadvantage people face, hold them back from meeting their needs.   Memories of past events damage or block people’s capacity to act. (Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (1987). Abrahams (2010), affirms   that abused women agree with Maslow by claiming,   domestic violence/abuse demolishes the structure of their hierarchy needs with the loss of their personal identify, destruction of confidence and self -esteem, isolation from potential systems and fear of uncertainty (Abrahams, 2010). Apart from women’s Maslow’s hierarchy of needs not being met and the physical aftermath of domestic violence, there are some serious consequences on the victim.   The World Health Organisations (2001) lists depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptom, eating disorders, sexual-dysfunction as being a direct result of the endurance of domestic violence and abuse. (World Health Organisations, 2001) Below are pictures showing the aftermath of physical domestic violence on women. Fig: 1:2 Women’s Aid, 2007. MENTAL HEALTH The impact of domestic violence on mental health has been well documented and includes low self-esteem, anxiety and depression (Kirkwood, 1993, Mooney 1994 and Thiara 2003a).  Ã‚   Research suggests that 50 percent of women users of mental health services have experienced domestic violence (Department of Health, 2003), compared to one-third of women in general population in the UK (Mooney, 1994). Women from the black ethnic minority accessing mental health services remain over-represented within such researches.   Given that the General Practitioner is the first port of call for women who face domestic violence (Dobash et al., 1985: 148), is considerable that seven women who were not in social housing were not registered with a General Practitioner (GP) in part because they were not able to afford paying for the medication that may be prescribed for them. Campel (2000) confirms depression and post traumatic stress disorder as the most prevalent mental-health problems of intimate partner violence. A study by (Mclnnes, 2003) reveals that it is not only while enduring domestic violence that women feel the impact of negative stereotyping associated with domestic violence. (Mclnnes, 2003) also describes the stereotypes as a form of social violence inflicted upon women. Women continue to live with the feeling of rejection and stigma from the general public even after leaving the perpetrator. A research by Mitchel and Hodson (1983) found out that sheltered women had a mean depression score two standard deviation above the norm.   In addition to a number of studies focusing on battered women who sought medical service and presenting with high rate of psychological difficulties. (Browne 1993; Holtsworth-Munroe et al. 2000) have also provided general discussions of the mental health correlates and consequences of husband violence.   Other researchers have also documented depression in large percentages of battered women in shelters or those receiving non-residential services for battered women (Cascardi and O’leary 1992). Results of studies on battered women showed that depressed mood, sleep problems, loss of energy, inappropriate guilt, problems with concentration and feelings of worthlessness were associated symptoms of depression (Andrews and Brown 1988).   (American Psychiatric Association 1994) also reported that low self-esteem which is closely related and often occurs with depression is generally referred to as an overall negative evaluation of self within battered women. In additions, Brown (1993) also observed that posttraumatic stress disorder may be the most appropriate diagnosis for many battered women with several researchers finding higher levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms in women receiving services from domestic violence shelters compared to other groups of women.   Kemp et al. (1995) found out that 81 percent of battered women and 63 percent of women who were verbally abused met criteria for a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Although it is unclear as to whether problems with substance mis-use arise before or after domestic violence, (Jaffe et al. 1986; Dawns and Gondoli 1989) argued that this issue warrants attention for the benefit of abused women.   (Bergman and Brismar 1991) confirms that 23 percent of battered women who received emergency medical attention services had a history of alcoholism whereas no women in a non-abused comparisons group did (Bergman and Brismar 1991). CHAPTER 5 CULTURAL INFLUENCES This chapter will discuss the cultural barriers within the black ethnic minority families to seeking statutory and voluntary organisations domestic violence support services. One of the most vital needs of women leaving home due to domestic violence is access to safe, secure stable housing. Although the refuge movement provides a network of refuges to women of all backgrounds, accommodation is available on an emergency and temporary basis only (Hague and Malos 1998:101). (Lee et al., 2002) suggest that the most influential factor on how a woman responds to domestic violence is social and cultural context of her life.   Even with the provision of refuges, a research by the (Southall Black Sisters, 2008) found out that black ethnic minority women and children endure violence for between three and forty years before seeing help. United Nations (UNCRC Article 6 [1], reports women from the black ethnic minority communities take an average of ten years before leaving a violent relationship.   As a result children grow up in unsafe and unhealthy home environment (United Nations 2008). (Adams 1999) points out â€Å"In considering domestic violence within black ethnic minority families, there has been reluctance to acknowledge its existence†. In addition Mama (1989) remarks that violence against women is historical bound up in patriarchal practices which are based on gender relationships more so in the black ethnic minority households.   (Women’s National Commission, 2003; Gill 2004) states that women are taught that the public image of family is more important than the safety of the individual. Honour and respectability are dependent on a successful marriage.   Also women fear dishonour and rejection from their communities if their marriage should fail.   Just like the Asian women, black ethnic minority women consider seeking help from the outsiders as the last resort (Yoshioka et al. 2003).   Black ethnic minority women are advised to stay in their marriage rather than leave abusive relationships (Gill 2004). (Adams 1999) argues that there are greater obstacles for women coming to the UK on spousal visas, women complaining of domestic violence risk deportation should they leave the martial home before the first year of arrival or marriage. (Adams 1999). (Abraham, 2000) indicates that isolation is an important factor in domestic violence particularly among immigrant families (Abraham 2000).   For women with no-recourse to public funding (NRPF), this isolation continued after they left abusive relationships.   Thirteen out of twenty women had no contact with family or friends in the two weeks prior to the interview due to a range of reasons including; lack of informal sources of support in the UK.   Fear of being disowned by family for leaving the marriage and fear of being traced, including lack of sufficient funds to visit friends or speak to families in the subcontinent. A research by the NHS (2003) suggests that sense of shame and fear of stigma within black ethnic minority communities might prevent women with complex social problems accessing services, the sense of shame in accessing drug services remain a concern.  Ã‚   In addition problems of confidentiality within the community also lead to lack of confidence in services (Fawcett 2004). (Women’s Aid 1997), commissioned a study exploring the needs of black ethnic minority women. The study illustrates that large numbers of from these communities are not aware of specialist support services.   Lack of such information by the black ethnic minority women leads them to endure violence for longer periods. (Women’s Aid 1997) also reveals, negative perception about refuges and inadequate help from agencies further heighten anxieties about refuges within such communities. Black ethnic minority communities, encompasses a multitude of ethnicities, nationalities, cultures and religions.   As a result of this black ethnic women consist of various diverse needs, concerns and life-styles.  Ã‚   (Dhillo-Kashyan and Woods 1994) highlights the difficulties for such women to retain their cultural and religious customs during their stay in refuges.   He adds that it is apparent that there were difficulties in supporting women with specific needs with shared accommodation provided by refuges as communal living. (Mama 1989; Adams 1988) noted that, there are greater difficulties for black ethnic minority women in accessing refuge support than white women.   Furthermore, whilst other groups stated in the research that they would accommodate this group of women, there seemed little understanding of their cultural and specific needs. Adams (1998) noted that black ethnic minority women feel far less secure in their own ability to leave home, particularly as they are considered subordinate within their own culture.   In addition many women from the black ethnic minority communities stay with their abuser for economic reasons. A Study by Humphrey and Thiara (2003), notes that women from the black ethnic minority community were significantly more likely to continue to suffer substantial problems both emotional and materially more than six months after separation from the abuser. (Humphrey and Thiara, 2003). (Thiara, 2005) states that not being fluent in English acts as a barrier preventing black ethnic minority women from seeking help and accessing services.   Such women are unable to access written information on domestic violence (Thiara, 2005). CHAPTER 6 REFUGES, CARE AND SUPPORT Despite the Feminist organisations campaign and attainment in 1977, of acceptance of domestic violence as a basis for homelessness in housing legislation (Morley et al, 2002), women’s â€Å"general† refuges which opened in the 1970’s to aid women and children fleeing domestic violence, enabling women to re-build their live and move on to stable, suitable accommodation confirmed that not all women’s care support needs were being met and not all women had equal access to the â€Å"generic† provision (Banga, B., Gill, A. 2008). Regardless of all campaigning, researches and large number of studies in domestic violence field, (Hague and Malos 1998; Dobash and Dobash 1992), changes in British social policy and housing policy in particular have in some respects, further secluded women and children experiencing domestic violence. Research documents that in the face of state policy and local authority practice women’s refuges which maintain themselves on the rentals paid through benefit system for residence can seldom afford to accommodate women with no-recourse to public funding (NRPF).   As a consequence, women with no recourse to public funds who repeatedly attempt to leave on many occasions only to return to their violent relationships (Dobash and Dobash, 1992; Mullender, 1996). (Crisis, 2006) confirms, women’s homelessness continued to be ignored by strategic thinking and policy making even though many women are still staying in hidden, informal and marginalised homeless accommodation. In a mapping exercise that included 551 woman’ organisations in London found that 73% of black ethnic minority organisation faced a funding crisis between year 2000 and 62% of black ethnic minority organisation had closed or moved locations (Soteri, 2002). Such data showed that by year 2000 black ethnic minority organisations were under threat and had less secure continuation (Soteri, 2002). A study on women in refuge accommodation in 2007 found that on average black ethnic minority women who happen to be accommodated in refuge stayed forty-four days in specialist refuges than women who accessed the main stream (Gill, A.; Banga, B. 2008). Furthermore twenty one refuges turned away 2,300 women who attempted to access specialist refuges because they were full.   As a result this rejection figure was mush higher for black ethnic minority women.  Ã‚   A research by (Women’s Resource Centre, 2007) showed that only 25% (percent) of women who stayed in refugees went to council housing upon leaving the refuge. A study conducted by Women Resource Centre (2008), on the state of London-based black ethnic minority women’s organisations, including the findings from the thirty-second report of the working group with the voluntary sector (2000) found that London-based black ethnic minority organisation had experienced long term volatility and 36 per cent have no paid staff at all. Even if the demand for services had increased and workloads have tripled, evidence showed that there was little support in terms of secure and core funding (Women Resource Centre, 2007). Women’s Resource Centre (2007) research on the state of funding for women found that the lack of suitable housing to move on to meant that, women stayed in refuges for longer periods of time.  Ã‚   This resulted in women being isolated for longer periods.   Also this lack of housing also influenced whether or not women return to their abusers. In is research for Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Chahal (2000) suggests that black ethnic minority groups who are social housing tenants have a tendency to live in the most deprived areas and are over-represented in disadvantaged inner city areas.   According to (Chahal, 2000) roughly 60 per cent of tenants within the housing association accommodation come from the black ethnic minority communities.   (Coy et al. 2007) states that a third of local authorities in the UK have no specialised support services and fewer than one in ten have specialist services for black ethnic minority women. While the UK government acknowledges that there are many commonalities in the experience of women escaping domestic violence, there appear to be little policy development that relates to specific concerns and needs of black ethnic minority women.   Presents of racism in the mainstream refuges has been the subject of a number of researches over the past few years.   This was highlighted in the recent research study (Chantler, 2006) which found, racism to be operating at three levels starting with the service users, workers and at state level through immigration policies that stop women from accessing services. SUPPORTING WOMEN WITH ‘NO RECOURSE’ TO PUBLIC FUNDS The provision of accommodation and support is vital for women who experience domestic violence, a fact recognised by the government in 2003 (Rights for women, 2003).   Women from the black ethnic minority communities with a â€Å"no recourse† visa who experience domestic violence find themselves in a complex situation because they cannot access public funds. Neither to leave their partner and are fundamentally trapped in the violent relationship. The ‘no recourse’ to public funds rule as defined by the Home Office   (2009) prevents women, especially from the black ethnic minority community on spousal visa or subject to immigration control from accessing certain public funds including welfare benefits such as, income support, child benefit as well as housing and homelessness assistance (Women’s Aid 2007). A survey of 11 London refuges found that in the period 2006/07, 223 women with â€Å"no recourse† to public funds requested refuge space.   However, only 19 (8.5%) women were accepted for support.   This meant that just 3% of the total of 585 women who were provided with refuge space providers in 2006/07, of the 19 women accommodated 16 had children (Islington, 2008), no re-course to public funds. The Immigration law (underpinned by various immigrations Acts) is set out in the Immigration Rules, Part 8 of the Immigration Rules state that a woman who joins a partner who has a settled immigration status can be given a 2 years â€Å"spousal† visa on the condition that the partner agrees to provide for their financial and material needs (Home Office 2010). When relationship breaks down, victims are often deterred from looking for help, or leaving violent relationships because they have nowhere to go, do not feel safe in their own homes and also do not have legal rights to remain (Rights of women 2003). Research by the (Southall Black Sisters, 2007) found out that it takes up to 24 months for a woman’s application for indefinite leave to remain (ILR) to be determined when she leaves an abusive partner. (Brittain et al, 2005) states that for many women from black ethnic minority, the nonexistence of interpreters makes accessing services very complex.   Bearing in mind the existing political climate of hostility towards immigrants, the cutback to interpretation as well as English language classes makes it likely that these barriers become entrenched, unless there is a change in policy and practice regarding interpretation and English classes.   When experiencing domestic violence women who have ‘no recourse’ to public funds need be given the ability to access the services as they need to escape domestic violence and protect themselves and their children. BLACK ETHNIC MINORITY WOMEN AND LAW A research entitled until women and children are safe, (Women’s Aid, 2007) argue that women from the black ethnic communities face a number of problems within the legal process.  Ã‚   In most instances gaining access to legal representatives is often stressful and confusing. Lack of specialist services or interpreters mean that such women are deprived of effective access to law and those women whose immigration status made them not entitled for help with legal aid experience particular difficulties (Women’s Aid, 2007). During the same time Women’s Aid research highlighted the process of going to court as itself traumatic and terrifying for women due to lack of separate waiting areas, so that applicants and their abusers often had to share the same small space (Barron, 1990). (Women’s Aid, 2007) states that, courts like many other agencies have often failed to understand the whole range of emotional, psychological and practical reasons why many women stay with or return to a violent partner.   As a result this does often have effect on women for not being taken seriously hence making them unwilling to come to courts. (Bryan, Dardzie and Scafe, 1985) argue that the issue of law enforcement within black communities is extremely controversial.   Negative stereotyping of black people individually and within family groups is pervasive.   Ã‚   CHAPTER 7 CONLUSION/CRITIQUE In conclusion, the examination of literature revealed rather little published material on the issue of black women generally and even less on the subject of violence within the home.   This contrasted with the wide body of work on white women suffering abuse from partners (Hammer and Maynard, 1987; Dobash and Dobash 1980). The stereo-type that surrounds domestic violence often denies the legitimisation of black ethnic minority women as victims (Bograd, 1999).   Often domestic violence against black ethnic minority women is not considered as serious as the violence committed against white victims (Harrison and Esquada, 2000).   This often creates a barrier in black women’s willingness and ability to disclose issues of domestic violence to any professional or care providers.   Any discriminatory practices limit such women’s comfort level in disclosing domestic violence and seeking out services to address it. As mentioned earlier in the study, many researchers and practitioners in past studies on domestic violence within black ethnic minority communities have chosen to lump all women from this community in one category. (Fonte, 1988) argued that in much previous researches, little attention has been paid to similarities and differences among various groups within the broad race, ethnic category. â€Å"Ethnic lumping† as argued by (Fonte, 1993), ignores the diversity within the larger group of black ethnic minority women.   Black ethnic minority women umbrella encompasses a multitude of ethnicities, nationalities, cultures and religions.   As a result the black ethnic minority consists of various diverse communities, each with their own needs, concerns and life styles and cultures that have to be taken into consideration offering support. Although it is clear that statutory and voluntary agencies have a moral and legal duty to respond effectively to the needs of women surviving domestic violence, practitioners need to become aware of limitations of a race-blind service delivery.   (Dominelli, 1988; Mama 1989a) also argue that attention needs to be paid more generally on the effects of policing practice and immigration legislation on lives of black women. Voluntary organisations such as Coventry Haven and many others play a key role in providing advocacy and other support services to domestic violence survivors yet these services appear to have been historically underfunded and struggle to meet the need of women who attempt to access them.  Ã‚   In the face of state policy and local authority practice study revealed that women’s refuges like Coventry Haven which maintain themselves on the rentals paid through benefit system for women residence can rarely afford to accommodate women with ‘no recourse’ to public funding (NRPF). Women’s Aid, (2009) research on domestic violence and housing policy found out that there is a reduction in resources available to organisations working with black ethnic minority women and such organisations have experienced long term stability with 36 per cent having no paid staff at all. As a result funding remains one of the barriers for women accessing services.   This study also found out that a lack of speciality shelters/refuge spaces and an absence of clear guidelines for involving specialist agencies in policy services development and evaluation meant that there is often low recognition of domestic violence with housing policy (Women’s Aid, 2009). Finally, it is essential for   all statutory and voluntary organisations recognise the need   to evaluate their methods of delivering services and ensure that gaps are identified and filled as appropriate if the needs of black women surviving domestic violence are to be met from a different cultural perspective.   Outreach services are very crucial for raising awareness about services and providing information to women from the black ethnic minority communities about the services.   However the few services that are available have no regular source of funding as mentioned earlier in the study.   As a result, many voluntary organisations working with survivors of domestic violence from the black ethnic minority communities will have no alternative but to shut down, leaving such women exposed to further violence from intimate partners.    CHAPTER 8 IMPLICATIONS TO SOCIAL WELFARE PRACTICE Responses to domestic violence should be culturally sensitive and suitable therefore more training for front line staff/practitioners should be vital to make them aware of the cultural differences when responding to domestic violence.   Too often â€Å"black† is lumped with white women and as a result, black women are invisible whose existence and needs are ignored (Dominelli, 2002:30).  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a result of such practices of lumping black women with white women, black feminists have criticised the white radical feminists for not considering the experiences and perspectives of black women when dealing with domestic violence. The complexities of race and gender can aggravate problems for practitioners and serve to cover the realities of women’s experience in the family (Lupton; Gallespie, 1994:106).   In offering assistance to people of different race and social class, it is essential for practitioners to understand their viewpoints especially their culture and values about family life (Lupton; Gallespie, 1994:106). During my practice as a domestic violence advocate/support worker for Coventry Haven, I noted that the organisation experienced some difficulties in supporting women from the black ethnic minority communities. The reason being that, this group encompasses a multitude of ethnicities, nationalities, cultures and religions.   As a result of such multitudes and lack of awareness and knowledge of different cultures by the front line practitioners meant that not all women’s needs were being met. In every effort to meet black ethnic minority women’s needs, the services available fail to meet the complex needs of this population (Martinson 2001; Bograd 1999).   In order to achieve this, (Borgrad, 1999) suggests that developing theories that move beyond simple description of domestic violence, but take into account intersections of race and class will be necessary in order to provide access to appropriate services for black ethnic minority women. All practitioners within the statutory and voluntary sector need to recognise the practice dilemmas. Insufficient cultural knowledge may result in inabilities to distinguish between understandings, and respecting other cultures and holding stereotypical notions about other cultures which I found problematic for many volunteers during my practice as a domestic violence advocate/support worker. RECOMMENDATIONS Researches on domestic violence within ethnic groups need to pay attention on the differences among various groups as â€Å"ethnic lumping† ignores the diversity within the larger group of black ethnic minority women.   Theories need to move beyond simple description of domestic violence and take into account intersection of race and class in order to provide access to appropriate services for black women. The Government needs to extend the domestic violence rule to include all abused women including women with ‘no recourse’ or insecure immigration status and introduce protection for this group of women whose marital relationships would have broken down. Responses to domestic violence should be culturally sensitive and appropriate therefore, providing culturally appropriate information and support may assist all women regardless of their race/ethnicity to disclose domestic violence. Mainstream services to augment their identification of domestic violence and signposting to specialist agencies for specialist services.   There is need for improved awareness and training for practitioners on culturally sensitive responses to black women’s domestic violence.   There is need to review some of the diversity policies and procedures in generic refuges.   More funding for more specialist domestic violence services working with women and children from the black ethnic minority communities.   More volunteers and interpreters from different cultural and language backgrounds are needed to ensure the language barrier is overcome. The development of interpreting and translation services should be a prioritised, not only can they make life easier for people whose first language is not English, but they would also offer agencies same as Coventry Haven a more effective way of working through some complicated cases of violence.Practitioners from both statutory and voluntary organisations   need to ensure that the needs of women from the black ethnic minority communities are addressed within the context of their being seen as whole human beings in which each area of their life interacts with others, looking at collective solutions to individual problems.

Biography of Michiel de Ruyter, Great Dutch Admiral

Biography of Michiel de Ruyter, Great Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter (March 24, 1607–April 29, 1676) was one of the Netherlands most skilled and successful admirals, who is famous for his role in the  Anglo-Dutch Wars  of the 17th century. He is particularly noted for his raid on the Medway, where the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, a river that flows right through the heart of London, England, burning more than 10 British ships and capturing two others. Fast Facts: Michiel de Ruyter Known For: Successful Dutch admiral of the 17th century; led a raid up the Thames and into the heart of LondonAlso Known As: Michiel Adriaenszoon, Bestevaà ªrBorn: March 24, 1607 in Vlissingen, NetherlandsParents: Adriaen Michielszoon, Aagje JansdochterDied: April 29, 1676 in the Bay of  Syracuse, near  SicilyFilms: Admiral (Michiel de Ruyter), 2015Awards and Honors: De Ruyter has a statue in his birthplace  Vlissingen looking out at the sea. Many towns in the Netherlands have named streets after him. Six ships of the  Royal Netherlands Navy  have been named  HNLMS  De Ruyter  and seven are named after his flagship  HNLMS  De Zeven Provincià «n.Spouse(s): Maayke Velders (m. March 16, 1631–December 31, 1631), Neeltje Engels (m. summer 1636–1650), Anna van Gelder (January 9, 1652–April 29, 1676)Children: Adriaen, Neeltje, Aelken, Engel, Margaretha, AnnaNotable Quote: You might see the heads of some, the arms, legs or thighs of others shot off, and others....cut off by the middle with a chain-shot breathing out their last anguish and pain; some burning in ships fired, and others exposed to the mercy of the liquid Element, some of them sinking, whilst others who have learnt the art of swimming, lift up their heads above water and implore pity from their very enemies, entreating them to save their lives. Early Life Ruyter was the son of Vlissingen beer porter Adriaen Michielszoon and his wife Aagje Jansdochter. Growing up in a port town, de Ruyter appears to have first gone to sea at age 11. Four years later, he entered the Dutch army and fought against the Spaniards during the relief of Bergen-op-Zoom. Returning to business, he worked in the Dublin office of the Vlissingen-based Lampsins Brothers from 1623 to 1631. He married Maayke Velders when he returned home, but the union proved brief as she died in childbirth in late 1631. In the wake of his wifes death, de Ruyter became first mate of a whaling fleet that operated around Jan Mayen Island. After three seasons on the whale fishery, he married Neeltje Engels, the daughter of a wealthy burgher. Their union produced three children who survived to adulthood. Recognized as a gifted sailor, de Ruyter was given command of a  ship in 1637 and was charged with hunting raiders operating from Dunkirk. Successfully fulfilling this duty, he was commissioned by the Zeeland Admiralty and given command of the warship Haze, with orders to aid in supporting the Portuguese in their rebellion against Spain. Early Naval Career Sailing as third-in-command of the Dutch fleet, de Ruyter aided in defeating the Spanish off Cape St. Vincent on November 4, 1641. With the fighting concluded, de Ruyter purchased his own ship, Salamander, and engaged in trade with Morocco and the West Indies. Becoming a wealthy merchant, de Ruyter was stunned when his wife suddenly died in 1650. Two years later, he married Anna van Gelder and retired from the merchant service. With the outbreak of the First Anglo-Dutch War, de Ruyter was asked to take command of a Zealandic squadron of directors ships (privately financed warships). Accepting, he successfully defended an outbound Dutch convoy at the Battle of Plymouth on August 26, 1652. Serving under Lieutenant-Admiral Maarten Tromp, de Ruyter acted as a squadron commander during the defeats at Kentish Knock (October 8, 1652) and the Gabbard (June 12–13, 1653). Following Tromps death at the Battle of Scheveningen in August 1653, Johan de Witt offered de Ruyter command of the Dutch fleet. Fearful that accepting would anger officers senior to him, de Ruyter declined. Instead, he elected to become the vice-admiral of the Amsterdam Admiralty shortly before the end of the war in May 1654. Later Naval Career Flying his flag from Tijdverdrijf, de Ruyter spent 1655–1656 cruising the Mediterranean and protecting Dutch commerce from the Barbary pirates. Shortly after arriving back in Amsterdam, he re-embarked with orders to support the Danes against Swedish aggression. Operating under Lieutenant-Admiral Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam, de Ruyter aided in relieving Gdaà ±sk in July 1656. Over the next seven years, he saw action off the coast of Portugal and spent time on convoy duty in the Mediterranean. In 1664 while off the coast of West Africa, he battled with the English who had occupied Dutch slaving stations. Crossing the Atlantic, de Ruyter was informed that the Second Anglo-Dutch War had begun. Sailing to Barbados, he attacked the English forts and destroyed shipping in the harbor. Turning north, he raided Newfoundland before re-crossing the Atlantic and arriving back in the Netherlands. After van Wassenaer, the leader of the combined Dutch fleet, was killed at the recent Battle of Lowestoft, de Ruyters named was again put forward by Johan de Witt. Accepting on August 11, 1665, de Ruyter led the Dutch to victory at the Four Days Battle the following June. Raid on the Medway While initially successful, de Ruyters luck failed him in August 1666 when he was beaten and narrowly avoided disaster at the St. James Day Battle. The outcome of the battle furthered de Ruyters growing rift with one of his subordinates, Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Tromp, who coveted his post as commander of the fleet. Falling gravely ill in early 1667, de Ruyter recovered in time to oversee the Dutch fleets daring raid on the Medway. Conceived by de Witt, the Dutch succeeded in sailing up the Thames and burning three capital ships and 10 others. Before retreating, they captured the English flagship Royal Charles and a second ship, Unity, and towed them back to the Netherlands. The embarrassment of the incident ultimately forced the English to sue for peace. With the wars conclusion, de Ruyters health continued to be an issue and in 1667, de Witt forbade him from putting to sea. This ban continued until 1671. The next year, de Ruyter took the fleet to sea to defend the Netherlands from invasion during the Third Anglo-Dutch War. Encountering the English off Solebay, de Ruyter defeated them in June 1672. Later Years and Death The following year, he won a string crucial victories at Schoonveld (June 7 and June 14) and Texel, which eliminated the threat of English invasion. Promoted to lieutenant-admiral-general, de Ruyter sailed for the Caribbean in mid-1674 after the English had been driven from the war. Attacking French possessions, he was forced to return home when disease broke out aboard his ships. Two years later, de Ruyter was given command of a combined Dutch-Spanish fleet and was sent to aid in putting down the Messina Revolt. Engaging a French fleet under Abraham Duquesne at Stromboli, de Ruyter was able to achieve another victory. Four months later, de Ruyter clashed with Duquesne at the Battle of Agosta. During the fighting, he was mortally wounded in the left leg by a cannonball. Clinging to life for a week, he died on April 29, 1676. On March 18, 1677, de Ruyter was given a full state funeral and buried in Amsterdams Nieuwe Kerk. Sources Pike, John. â€Å"Military.†Ã‚  Anglo-Dutch Wars.â€Å"Michiel Adriaanszoon De Ruyter.†Ã‚  Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 Apr. 2018.â€Å"The Collection.†Ã‚  Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel De Ruyter (1607–1676) - National Maritime Museum.

Increase in Economic Growth does not Necessarily Lead to an Increase Essay

Increase in Economic Growth does not Necessarily Lead to an Increase in Human Well-Being - Essay Example There are many definitions to the term economic growth; however, economists agree that economic growth refers to the growth in goods and services that a country produces over a period of time; this growth is measured in gross domestic product (GDP) (La Grandville, 2011, p536). GDP includes the goods and services that a country produces, that is to mean the personal expenditure of the people in the country added to the government expenditure and the net exports, which is the value of exports minus imports (Contanza, Hart, Posner and Talberth, 2009, 3). There have been various concerns by economists of how well GDP measures the well-being of individuals in a country with most of them arguing for differentiation between economic growth and economic well-being. This paper will therefore analyse critically the claim that an increase in levels of economic growth does not necessarily translate to increase in the well-being of individuals. The idea of well being of an individual can be eithe r objective or subjective. In the objective well-being, individuals use material goods that are measurable such as buying a new house or car among other material gains. However, economic growth is not usually associated with improved material well being because some of the factors that cause the economic growth also cause negative impacts in the society such as exploitation, environmental degradation or unequal spread of the wealth. GDP as a measure of well being of individuals’ measure the value of intermediate goods, which are not enjoyed by people rather they are used to produce other goods and services. In addition, the exclusion of military expenditure from GDP since there is no measurable output undermines the improvement in the quality of life that people enjoy due to military operations to secure the boarders of a country hence reducing criminal activities (D’acci, 2011, 49). The subjective well being of is the state of happiness that is usually brought about b y the enjoyment of the material wealth. In most of the instances, the subjective well-being, which is the psychological utility of the good that an individual has, is used to measure the variations in the objective well being of the individual. Research has found out that in some instances even with improves material wealth of a country, the happiness levels do not improve , however this claim has been refuted as in most instances the wealthier a country becomes the happier the residents are as wealth leads to increased levels of expressed happiness (Oswald ,1997, 1815). In addition, the levels of happiness that an increase in material wealth brings are usually attached to the social expectations and aspirations. Therefore even if economic growth increased the material wealth of an individual, the economic standards benchmark will rise, the individual will therefore remain at the same position or be worse off relative to the new economic standards and expectations which in return do es not making him any happier. In addition, the increase in employment that is brought about by economic growth does not necessarily lead to increased well being of an individual (Kenny, 1999, 6). Research conducted by the international labour organisation has showed that over 40% of workers are classified as poor, this happens when the employment increases without accompanying increase in productivity of each worker, it has been confirmed in East Asian countries such as Vietnam where increased levels of productivity among employees have led to reduction in poverty levels in the country. The idea that economic growth d

SIOP Lesson Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

SIOP Lesson Plan - Essay Example 3. Handout of comprehension passages. 4. A leaflet containing a list of difficult vocabulary and their meaning. 5. A history kit or a worksheet (please see appendix 1). Motivation: A documentary or transparencies on one of the battles is shown to the students before beginning the activity. A transparency can be shown having the chronology of the battles. Simple and straight questions that can be connected to the content in the passages. The students are allowed to interact before answering the questions. Let the three groups have an interactive discussion about the outcome of battles. Presentation: Try to present the students how the past wars can be related to the present wars. How wars are started and the positive and negative effects of a war. An equation between quantum of loss incurred and misery caused to the population due to wars as against the benefits and allow the students to analyse. The students are allowed to exchange notes and do peer evaluation so that they will understand each other's writing styles and at the same time are encouraged to question each other about the answer they chose and discuss. A discussion about the present wars in comparison to the past makes them understand how content can be useful in learning language skills. Exchanging notes and interaction between the groups leads to the integration of language skills. The teacher first explains the sequence of the activity with examples. Practice: An information gap activity is presented to all the three groups. The three groups are given a passage with fill in the blanks on three different battles. Since all the members in the group are aware of the events the groups are allowed to interact and seek answers... The students are allowed to exchange notes and do peer evaluation so that they will understand each other's writing styles and at the same time are encouraged to question each other about the answer they chose and discuss. A discussion about the present wars in comparison to the past makes them understand how content can be useful in learning language skills. Exchanging notes and interaction between the groups leads to the integration of language skills. An information gap activity is presented to all the three groups. The three groups are given a passage with fill in the blanks on three different battles. Since all the members in the group are aware of the events the groups are allowed to interact and seek answers and fill in the blanks with right answers. Each student from the group is asked to select one battle and make a very short oral presentation before the class. The content of the presentation need not be entirely based on the true text but can relate to the other aspects of the war. (The students are given time to make notes before the presentation).

Features and Benefits of Skype

Features and Benefits of Skype Introduction of Skype (voice unified communication) Skype is the most popular communication tool service in the world. The skype service comes with application software and softphone which suit the application so normally many people think that skype just only provide software which outcome the well service which they provide. The service also provide free or paid service with different kinds of program which can be use in skype as paid service include more features. The free service only provide connect with other skype users while other premium plans include the ability to call from skype to landlines across the worlds as well as own a skype dial-in number so that landline callers can reach us on your computer. Skype has cutout quite a numbers of barriers to the communication system which it is due to poor connection user for the network traffic, while in the early stage we needed to take particular care of the minutes and seconds we spend speaking on international calls which end up is overprice spending, but now we no longer need to worry about it. If you are using pc to pc chatting, you will not paying a single cent in the skype free account more than just your monthly internet service billing. Skype is using the integration of voice and instant messaging service to talk to each other which delivering clear and high quality calls over the internet. Requirement tools for using skype is simple few things, a computer with decent processing speed and memory which must have keyboard and mouse in your system, a high-end speed internet connection like boardband, sound card that speaker or earpieces is in working condition and last thing skype software which is freely downloadable in the main website. People use skype mainly for the high quality of voice it provide and also because it provide free service for pc to pc talk. We around the world use skype for several things such as long-distance communicate with family,friends and loved ones,for business calls or long-distance conferences and also cheaper calls durin g our traveling and ETC The features and strength/weaknesses of skype Skype has a lot of interesting features which can be use like video call or conferencing, SMS, voicemail, instant messaging, call forwarding, skype to skype interface, business control panel, contacts and many others. For free plan skype only include most feature using like instant messaging and skype to skype calls through skype account but for paid plan it cover most features in free plan and plus include call phone and mobile, sending sms to other phone which can be done using either pc or softphone which usable with skype Strength weakness: Nowadays, skype work in the rightness of networks and recent technology which overcome it strength and weakness. For its good point because it let us manage to have a lot more flexibility and more better voices which overcome the problems cause by poor call quality and other interrupting issue which cause by â€Å"noise† in the telephone line and what the weakness about skype because it stops most accounts in skype users from being able to communicate with other open source networks that dealing with communication software And another main reason is that when you are using low-connection internet or keep receiving poor signal while in the skype conference, the application in the skype has some clever programming managing tool to analysis the problem try to prefix it and get your call smoothly through the calls. The program tool has the most important ability to dynamically change and fix in the codec in use to the call to suit the network conditions strength. Sometime we will also encounter packet loss during the sending of information which cause alot of times waiting for the busy line to be stable to send out the data to one and other using skype The problems skype trying to address They need to improving its identity authentication process. This is one of the part skype trying to further expansion into the business market to enhance username authentication for business customers. Skype also encounter security bug that could expose value and useful data to hacker. Most users could let an hacker making a Skype hyperlink which the users clicked on it, it will sends a file from the victims computer to another Skype user. One of the most problem they address is that hackers tend to control a users pc without the admin promission which cause alots of value data being known. An hacker could exploit the user pc by programming or uploading a special link and AD-popup a user to click on it. The hacker can also be exploited when sending some annoying information from a malformed electronic business card or Vcard. Critically evaluate Skype and future trends Scalable Skype PBX/PABX Gateways FEATURES BENEFITS: Company now can talk or chat over on skype for free and Skype-Out for low-cost call without PC cause they provide Skype-In static numbers for local calls to users and Skype-Web calls for user with free plan service . Using Companys phones to make a simple calls by prefix-handle service and smart PhoneBook . . Directly connect to PBX/PABX program using Plug Play format which only took 10 minute, also by using the program Sky-Grid System to upgrade the total capacity storage can save more money and with the better administration Control to make MIS/Call-Management job more easier They also provide Solving the issues of Bandwidth Information Security by independent xDSL and monitor the status by VNC Web-Administration or Telnet Control. Reference from : http://eshop.spin3d.com.tw/images/Scalable%20Skype%20PBX%20Gateway.pdf Open source freeswitch added into skype: This is the new release device which called â€Å"freeswitch†, is the first open source freeswitch will enable user or orgamnisation to intregrate skype into their Voip and platform services. For the first time, developers will have a free usage which include high-performance voice switching platform that can tie Skype clients into nearly every other major VoIP platform on the market today. Aside which we extending high definition voice across the networks, freeswitch will enable developers to build Skype integration into telephone applications, such as VoIP-enabled IVRs. Skype upgrade not only change the platform to freeswitch but also added in support for one of the most popular telephone engines (open phone layer) which gives freeswitch support for 323 clients and devices which also brings another venue for SIP support. Skype also working towards tighter integration with the platforms, the skype for asterisk is a prototype to allows interoperability between skype and asteri sk. Which offer better voice quality, allow users to place and receive calls without any cumbersome workaround, provide caller ID and retrieving skype credit balance information control panel that user can access Reference from : http://blogs.zdnet.com/Greenfield/?p=353